Design Life-Cycle

Nathaniel Hobbs 

Professor Christina Cogdell

DES 40A A02

12 March 2026

Materials in the Life Cycle of Photovoltaic Systems

Over the past decade photovoltaic systems, made up of a bunch of solar panels, have been a very common alternative to the non-renewable energy sources used to generate electricity. Currently the United States uses a mixture of coal, oil, and natural gasses all of which generates over 6.2 billion metric tons of CO2 and contributes over 10% toward global greenhouse gas emissions. Recently solar panel systems have proved to be popular amongst home owners, and has saved them money in the long term as well as preventing a great amount of global greenhouse gas emissions. What makes solar panels a strong alternative to these fossil fuels and other non-renewable energy sources is that the solar cells are made of  the second most abundant element in Earth’s crust: silicon. Using the abundant amounts of silicon the United States is one step closer to using the almost unlimited amount of energy given to use from the sun, but needs a great amount of improvement to increase their efficiency while decreasing their cost. A life cycle analysis of solar panels informs us that the different materials from the beginning of life to the recycling process play an important role in determining the photovoltaic system’s overall environmental impact, cost, and its efficiency. Evaluating the materials used to construct solar panels reveals just how much money is spent from purifying the silicon to melting and forming the metals and glass, and presents the need for more research to improve the material efficiency and decrease cost of these photovoltaic systems. 

The journey of a solar panel starts with the raw materials acquisition, using what is naturally abundant within our Earth and mining those resources so that they could be used in later steps of the production process. A simple analysis of the materials needed for solar panels illustrates that they primarily use glass, plastic polymer, aluminum, silicon, copper, and other metals (METGroup). As previously mentioned, silicon is extremely abundant and therefore very easy to obtain from Earth’s crust. The glass used is also made from melting silica sand and is therefore extremely abundant as well. As seen in the photovoltaic system installed at Aswaq Al Salam in Jordan, glass is one of the most needed materials for solar panels as it surrounds the entire panel (Alrbai, et al., 10). The glass is used to prevent harmful UV rays from the sun from reaching the extremely delicate solar cells. 

Other metals such as copper, aluminum, and silver are also mined in the raw materials acquisition stage so that they may be used in later steps of solar cell production. Silver can be decently expensive as a precious metal and contributes significantly towards the cost of the overall photovoltaic system due to the high-energy demand in silver mining (Alrbai, et al., 4). Because silver is necessary in the production of solar panels it is needed when acquiring the materials regardless of cost. To make the solar panels economically efficient, producers would need to charge more to offset the higher cost of mining the silver. One alternative to silver that is generally mentioned in the field of photovoltaic systems is copper, but more research needs to be done on the subject before production plants can even think about ordering more copper to be mined. Solar panels are relatively new, and therefore stick with what they know works. Aluminum is also essential to solar panel construction, and needs to be minded in mass efforts so that it is available for the production process. Receiving aluminum is also more than just mining it, and requires it to be tested, packed, and transported all before even being used in the production process. While aluminum is particularly cheap, the cost can slowly build because of the mining and transportation costs (Milinko & Mitrašinović 7). So far we have seen solar panels created with aluminum and silicon, both of which are extremely abundant but due to mining and transportation processes increase the cost of solar panel systems. 

As all of the necessary materials have been mined, packaged, and shipped to the production plants, the solar panels move through the production manufacturing process. Materials often added throughout the process would include phosphorus, boron, silicon nitride, and polymers. Perhaps one of the most important parts are the polymers that protect the solar panels from water, high temperatures, and dirt (Spira). Solar panels spend much of their time outside collecting the energy from the sun, and need to be protected in the case of storms or debris. The solar cells are extremely sensitive within themselves, and are another reason why solar panels need to have a strong encasing system used to protect the cells. Even though silicon is extremely abundant within the materials acquisition process, it needs to reach a purity level of “~99% to ensure adequate PV efficiency” which has its own process to be able to reach this level of purity (Nassar et al., 2022). Reaching this level of purity is extremely difficult, and often results in lots of unused silicon being disposed of during the production process. Silicon is a key component in the actual solar cells themselves, and for the cells to be able to control the electron movement the silicon needs to be of perfect quality (U.S. Department of Energy). Impurities within the silicon will block electron flow and therefore cause less electricity to be produced leading towards a weaker and inefficient panel. Studies all throughout the world show that residential solar panels are typically between 15-20% efficient in converting energy from the sun into electricity. Because solar cells are so delicate, we need to wrap them up with as many polymers as needed to protect them from the sun's harmful rays as well as Earth’s climate. After all, these solar cells are extremely costly because of the “energy intensive stages” of the production process, and would need strong protection to ensure that these panels maintain low maintenance over their life leading to a lower overall cost for consumers (Alrbai, et al., 2). Solar cells also use boron to create the silicon ingots with added phosphorus which allow the cells to conduct more electricity (Richardson). During the production process, solar cells are the highlight of the panels, they are what makes the solar panels work and therefore determine the overall cost and efficiency of the solar panel. One little defect within the solar cell can completely reduce the efficiency of these solar cells. The endless amount of choices range from cadmium telluride solar cells to organic/polymer solar cells, the model depends on what level of efficiency the consumer would like and how much they would be willing to pay (Hudedmani, et al., pg 8). Each one of these solar panels use a different production process which again relies heavily on the production and testing of solar cells. As the solar panels are put onto aluminum bases paired with a junction box that uses common electronics, they are packaged and ready for the transportation process. 

The transportation process of solar panels does not use very many materials, in fact they only use whatever materials the trucks or rails were made of. One study shows that the transportation process does not use many extra materials, but instead uses mass amounts of fossil fuels such as oil and gasoline to power their trains, freight, and trucks (Smith, et al., 51). A very simple process in the life cycle of a solar panel, the transportation of solar panels uses very little materials. Installation however does use some extra materials, most of which are pretty common and do not require special production for. One source states that “cables, conduits, and other electrical connection components” are all used within an electric installation process (Smith, et al., 19). That same source also states that solar panels do occasionally need lubrication, but a lot of times it is mostly electrical work (Smith, et al., 19). Oftentimes the amount of these materials is very low and therefore does not have a very big impact on the life cycle of solar panels. Maintenance of the solar panels often does not require very many materials at all, just a regular cleaning (Vishakha). Solar panels are often made to last 25+ years for common household systems.

After 25 years the solar panels are ready to be reused and recycled. However, because these photovoltaic systems are relatively new there isn’t a whole lot of research done on the recyclable materials used within solar panels. It is however well known that recycling these solar panel materials will cause less overall CO2 emissions during the production process (Leda, et al.). While most of the materials end up in landfills, some materials end up in partial recycling such as the aluminum frame or the remaining module laminate (Smith, et, al., 20). One major problem that needs to be addressed within the next few years of solar panel manufacturing is the issue of recycling. As previously mentioned, solar panel lifespans typically last 25 years, and the United States is coming up on that deadline. As the US approaches the end of life for those current solar panels, one question remains about how we will recycle these materials and create current photovoltaic systems in a manner that allows most of the resources to be reused. 

Solar panels are the future of renewable energy in the United States. Not only do they save our atmosphere from harmful greenhouse gas emissions, but they provide economic relief to those using solar panels over the long term and even allow for consumers to sell clean electricity back to the grid. As previously explained silicon is one of the most abundant materials on Earth, and even though it must first go through an extreme purification process it features great potentials to our usage of renewable energy. One of the main things holding our society back from using solar panels is the inefficiency in recycling the materials, which needs to be researched more before any true alternatives can progress. After solving this one little problem, solar panels can become the future of clean reusable energy within the United States. 

Works Cited

Alrbai, Mohammad, et al., “Life-Cycle Assessment and Techno-Economic Analysis of a Grid-Connected Solar Photovoltaic System: Environmental Benefits and Economic Feasibility.” Energy Exploration & Exploitation, 2026, pp. 1–20. 

Hudedmani, Mallikarjun G, et al. “A Study of Materials for Solar PV Technology and Challenges.” European Journal of Applied Engineering and Scientific Research, vol. 5, no. 1, 1 January 2017, pp. 1–13. 

manager@vishakharenewables. “Major Raw Materials Used for Making Solar Panel - Vishakha Renewables.” Vishakha Renewables, 30 July 2024, vishakharenewables.com/blog/8-major-raw-materials-used-for-making-solar-panels/.

MET Group“What Are Solar Panels Made Of?” Met.com, 30 June 2024, met.com/en/mind-the-fyouture/mindthefyouture/what-are-solar-panels-made-of/. 

Milinko Radosavljević, and Mitrašinović, Aleksandar M.. “Photovoltaic Materials and Their Path toward Cleaner Energy.” Global Challenges, 28 Oct. 2022, p. 2200146, https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.202200146. 

Nassar YF, El-Khozondar HJ, Alsadi SY, et al. (2022). Atlas of PV solar systems across Libyan territory. In:Proceedings—2022 International conference on engineering and MIS, ICEMIS 2022. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. Epub ahead of print 2022. 

Richardson, Luke. “What Are Solar Panels Made of and How Are They Made?” EnergySage, 11 October 2023, www.energysage.com/solar/what-are-solar-panels-made-of-list-of-solar-pv-materials/.

Smith, Brittany L., et. al. An Updated Life Cycle Assessment of Utility-Scale Solar Photovoltaic Systems Installed in the United States. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-7A40-87372, March 2024.  https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy24osti/87372.pdf.  

Spira, Natalie. “What Goes into Solar Panel Manufacturing.” Kloeckner Metals Corporation, 10 January 2023.

US Department of Energy. “Solar Photovoltaic Cell Basics.” Energy.gov, 2022, www.energy.gov/eere/solar/solar-photovoltaic-cell-basics. 

Brandon Cisneros 

DES40A 

Professor Christina Cogdell

03/12/2026

The Hidden Energy Costs of Solar Panels 

While solar panels generate more energy than they require over their lifetime, the energy-intensive processes involved in raw materials extraction, manufacturing, transportation, and recycling create hidden energy costs that must be reduced for solar energy to become truly sustainable. 

Solar panels are widely promoted as one of the most important technologies for transitioning to renewable energy. They generate electricity using sunlight and produce no direct greenhouse gas emissions while operating. Because of this, solar power is often described as a clean and sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. However, when the entire life cycle of a solar panel is examined, it becomes clear that significant amounts of energy are required long before a panel begins generating electricity. From mining raw materials to manufacturing and transporting panels around the world, energy is consumed at nearly every stage of the production. Recognizing and understanding these hidden energy costs are important to evaluate the true sustainability of solar energy systems. Although solar panels produce clean electricity during use, large amounts of energy are required during extraction, processing, manufacturing, installing, and recycling. Many of these processes rely on fossil fuels or electricity generated from nonrenewable sources. Even though solar panels require a lot of energy to produce, they still generate more energy over their lifetime. 

The first stage in the life cycle of a solar panel starts with extracting the raw materials needed to build photovoltaic cells and structural components. Solar panels require materials such as silicon, aluminium, copper, silver, and glass. Each material has its own energy consuming extraction process, which contributes to the energy cost. Getting these materials from the earth/mines uses a lot of energy, mainly from fossil fuels used by mining equipment, transportation, factories, and man power. 

Silicon is one of the most important materials used in solar panels because it forms the semiconductor layer that converts sunlight into electricity. Silicon is derived from quartz, which must be mined and then processed into a purified form. The purification process requires extremely high temperatures and industrial equipment, according to Muteri, “ the purification of silicon and wafer production represent the most energy-intensive stages of photovoltaic panel manufacturing” ( Muteri et al.). This stage alone consumes large amounts of electricity because silicon must be melted and refined repeatedly to reach the required purity level. Other materials used in solar panels also require energy-intensive extraction processes such as aluminium, copper, and silver. Aluminium frames are produced from bauxite ore through a method called electrolysis, which consumes large amounts of energy. Copper used in wiring and electrical connections must also be mined and refined. These mining and refining activities rely heavily on diesel machinery and fuel-based electricity, contributing to both energy consumption and environmental impacts at a large scale(Abian et al.). 

Another factor that contributes to energy use during this stage is the transportation of raw materials extracted from mines and transported to manufacturing facilities, often across different countries. Trucks, trains, planes, and ships are used to move these materials all of which require gas/fuel. These transportation systems add additional energy consumption before the solar panel even reaches the assembling stage. This shows that a panel’s overall sustainability depends not only on the clean electricity it produces, but on all the energy used to make,transport and recycle it. 

After raw materials are extracted and processed, they are transported to factories where solar panels are manufactured and assembled. This stage is widely considered the most energy-intensive phase of the solar panel life cycle. Manufacturing photovoltaic cells requires several industrial processes such as silicon purification, ingot formation, water slicing, and cell assembly, that consume large amounts of energy and heat. 

One of the most energy demanding steps is the creation of crystalline silicon wafers. Silicon must be melted at temperatures above one thousand four hundred degrees Celsius and then carefully cooled to form crystalline structures that can be cut into thin wafers. Maintaining these high temperatures requires continuous energy input. Researchers have found that the production stage accounts for the majority of the energy consumed throughout the life cycle of the solar panels (Cellular, et al.).Additional manufacturing steps also require significant amounts of energy. Photovoltaic cells must undergo chemical treatment that improves their electrical performance. Industrial machinery is used to assemble the cells into modules and attach protective glass layers. Glass production itself requires melting raw materials at extremely high temperatures which shows the consumption of large amounts of energy through all the processes, even the small ones.

The aluminum frame used to support solar panels also requires energy-intensive manufacturing processes. Aluminum must be melted in high-temperatures smelting furnaces and then shaped using casting machines and extrusion presses. Many solar panels manufacturing facilities are located in regions where electricity is still produced using coal or gas. Because of this, the energy used during manufacturing can result in greenhouse gas emission and environmental impacts (Ho et al.). Overall the manufacturing phase represents the largest concentration of energy use in the solar panel life cycle. Improving efficiency in these industrial processes could significantly reduce the total energy required to produce solar panels, lowering the environmental impacts, and supporting the overall sustainability of solar systems. 

Once solar panels are manufactured, they must be transported again to the distributors and installation sites or companies around the world. Solar panel production is part of a global supply chain, meaning that panels often travel long distances before they are even installed on homes or solar farms.

Solar panels are commonly transported using cargo ships that burn heavy oil fuel. These ships carry large shipments of solar panels across oceans to reach international markets. After arriving at ports, panels are typically transported by trucks or trains to warehouses and installation sites. Each of these transportation methods requires fuel and energy. Although transportation represents a smaller portion of the total energy used throughout the life cycle of solar panels, it still contributes to their overall environmental footprint. Global supply chains make renewable energy technologies accessible worldwide, but they also increase the amount of fuel required to move products across the world.  

Despite the high energy cost involved in earlier stages of the production, solar panels provide significant environmental benefits during their use phase. Once installed, solar panels provide clean electricity for homes, businesses, and the power grid without relying on fossil fuels. Solar panels typically operate for approximately twenty five  to thirty years. During this time, they generate far more electricity than the amount of energy required to manufacture them. This concept is known as energy payback time. Energy payback time refers to the amount of time required for a solar panel to generate the same amount of energy that was used during its production. Studies show that photovoltaic systems generally recover their energy investment relatively quickly. According to Muteri, solar panels  “typically recover the energy used during their production within a few years of operation” (Muteri et al.). After reaching this point, solar panels continue generating renewable energy for the remainder of their lifespan. Maintenance during the use phase requires relatively little energy compared to earlier stages. Solar panels may occasionally need cleaning or minor repairs, but these activities require minimal additional energy. As a result the use phase represents the most environmentally beneficial stage of its life cycle. 

At the end of their lifespan, solar panels must either be recycled or disposed of. Recycling solar panels requires additional energy because machines must break the panels and separate their materials. Solar panels contain glass, aluminum, silicon, and other components that must be processed individually so that they can be reused. 

The recycling process often involves crushing panels, separating materials, and using chemical or thermal treatments to recover valuable metals. These processes require energy and specialized equipment, which adds to the overall energy consumption(Kumar). However, recycling can also reduce future energy consumption. Recovering materials such as aluminum and copper from old solar panels requires far less energy than extracting and refining these materials from raw resources. For example, recycling aluminum uses only a fraction of the energy needed to produce aluminum from bauxite ore. The rapid growth of solar energy means that recycling will become increasingly important in the future. The International Renewable Energy Agency estimates that “solar photovoltaic waste could reach tens of million of tons globally by 2050” (International Renewable Energy Agency). Developing efficient recycling systems will be essential for reducing the energy and environmental impacts of solar panels. 

Solar panels are an essential technology for reducing greenhouse gas emission and transitioning to renewable energy. However, examining the entire life cycle of solar panels reveals that they require significant amounts of energy during multiple stages of production. Energy is consumed during raw materials extraction, manufacturing, transportation, and recycling processes. Out of all these stages, manufacturing, particularly silicon purification and wafer production represent the most energy-intensive part. Transportation and recycling also require additional energy, although these stages contribute less to the overall energy footprint. Despite these energy demands, solar panels remain an effective renewable energy technology because they generate far more electricity over their lifetime, recover their initial energy costs relatively quickly and continue producing clean energy for decades. 

Improving manufacturing efficiency, reducing reliance on fossil fuels during production, and expanding solar panel recycling systems are important steps toward making solar energy more sustainable. As solar energy continues to grow around the world, understanding the energy costs is important to maintain its long term effectiveness. By addressing these challenges, solar technology can continue to provide clean energy for decades while playing a major role in creating a cleaner global energy system. 

Works Cited 

Abuan, Arefin Ittesanfun, et al. “Comprehensive Review of the Material Life Cycle and Sustainability of Solar Photovoltaic Panels.” Solar Energy,vol.301, 2025, p. 113927, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2025.113927.

Cellura, Maurizio, et al. “A Review on Life Cycle Environmental Impacts of Emerging Solar Cells.” Science of the Total Environment, vol. 908, 2024, p. 168019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168019.

De Zilva, Droovi Beven Kean, at al. “Deconstrcuting Value in Solar Panel Reuse with Time-Explicit Life Cycle Assessment." Resources, Conservation and Recycling, vol. 226, 2026, p.108699, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2025.108699.

Health, Garvin, et al. “Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Solar Photovoltaics.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2012, https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/life-cycle-assessment.html.

Ho, Kendra H. Y, et al. “Envrionmental Impact Assessment of Solar Panel Production and Recycling in Southeast Asia.” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 522, 2025, p.146277, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.146277.

International Renewable Energy Agency. End-of-Life Management: Solar Photovoltaic Panels. IRENA, 2016.

Kumar, Virendra. Sustainable Management of Solar PV Panel Waste: A Circular Approach to Solar PV Waste. River Publishers, 2025, https://doi.org/10.1201/9788743800866.

Muteri, Vincenzo, at al. “Review on Life Cycle Assessment of Solar Photovoltaic Panels.” Energies, vol. 13 no.1, 2020,p 252,  https://doi.org/10.3390/en13010252.

Sovacool, Benjamin K, et al. “Towards Improved Solar Energy Justice: Exploring the Complex Inequities of Household Adoption of Photovoltaic Panels.“ Energy Policy,, vol. 164, 2022, p. 112868, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2022.112868.